Assignment 6

1. “These, then, are some of the main ways in which readers and critics engage with literary texts and begin to put forward accounts of what they mean. So, where does it leave us? The situation is this. We will always need these ten elements of interpretation. Literary criticism can never grow out of them, and they can never be superseded. It's impossible to do English without them. It always was, and it always will be.
And yet, equally, they are never enough. What, then, is missing? Well, they mostly look inwards into the text itself, and we also need to look outwards. This necessary looking outwards from the text is why we have and why we need literary theory. The text principles do not contain much that would focus us on the cultural contexts and co-texts of a literary work. Theory can help us especially in considering four major aspects of the relationship between literature and the world beyond, these being firstly, literature and history, secondly, literature and language, thirdly, literature and gender, and finally, literature and psychoanalysis”.

Paraphrase:
In the article “Tackling Textuality – With Theory” in The Use of English (Vol. 52 Nr. 1 Autumn 2000) the author Peter Barry argues that the ten ways of the conventional exposition of a literary work, which he mentions and evaluates, are very important. When reviewers and ordinary readers engage in literature they will always have to bear these useful tools in mind. Barry writes that nothing can replace them as they are basically the most essential tool in the language of English. However, at the same time he claims that they are not, and will never be, sufficient, because they do not cover everything a reviewer wants to know. The conventional exposition focuses on the text itself, whereas literary theory applies the outside world, meaning how a text is influenced by time and culture. To apply literary theory is of great importance, and there are four ways in which this could be done, namely between literature and history, language, gender and psychoanalysis.

“So far we have made a general case for using literary theory, arguing its compatibility with many elements of our traditional literary training. I'd like to take another example now, and take just one of the four categories in more detail, namely the second, the one about the relationship between literature and language. The reason for taking this one is that it enables us to think about deconstructive reading, which on the one hand has been a powerful tool in literary theory, but on the other has clear affinities with the kind of intensive close reading which we have always practised. . . . The process of deconstructing a text often involves fixing on what looks like an incidental detail - such as a particular word, or a particular metaphor - and then bringing it in from the margin of the text to the centre. In this way the text is 'de-centred' by the reading process, and the overall effect is often perverse, obsessive, manic, or even apparently malevolent towards author and text, reader and literature. If we think of the text as a cat, then old-style close reading involves stroking the cat so that it purrs and curls in upon itself contentedly feeling good. Deconstructive reading is like stroking the cat the wrong way, against the grain of the textual fur, so that the cat bristles and hisses, and the whole situation becomes less predictable. The close-reader aims to show a unity of purpose within the text: the text knows what it wants to do, and having directed all its means towards this end, it is at peace with itself. By contrast, the deconstructor aims to show that the text is at war with itself, and that it is characterised by disunity rather than unity. So the deconstructor looks for such things as, firstly, ‘contradictions’, secondly, ‘linguistic quirks’ and ‘aporia’, thirdly, ‘shifts or breaks’ (in tone, viewpoint, tense, person, attitude, etc.), and finally, ‘absences or omissions’”.

Paraphrase:
Peter Barry argues in favor of literary theory and he explains the overall use of the term and emphasizes the fact that it is easily used along with the conventional course of studying literature. One of these courses, Barry claims, is more important to apply because it involves deconstructive reading, which is an influential appliance in literary theory, but at the same time is clearly related to some of the elements in the conventional interpretation. . . . Barry continues on explaining that the use of deconstructive reading in practice is basically searching for certain words or metaphors that do not seem to fit in, something that appears like a mistake by the author. When finding one of these, one should put full attention to it, and in that way make the text itself less important, less focused. Consequently, the author, text and literature could become contemplated as fractious, fanatical and frenzied, and even evidently vicious. Barry compares this with the stroking of a cat; to use the conventional course when studying literature is to stroke the cat with the fur, whereas deconstructive reading is like stroking the cat against the fur. Stroking the cat with the fur makes it purr by a pleasant feeling, while stroking it against the fur only makes the cat irritated. In turn this will perhaps have unexpected consequences. Barry moves on by further explaining the difference between the original “close-reader” and the “deconstructor”, by emphasizing the fact that the former wants to interpret the text as a whole, searching for the meaning of the context, whereas the latter is searching for the inner battle that goes on within the text, hoping to find words or phrases that do not agree or cooperate. Barry finally argues that these disagreements can be found as “firstly, contradictions, secondly, linguistic quirks and aporia, thirdly, shifts or breaks (in tone, viewpoint, tense, person, attitude, etc.), and finally, absences or omissions”.

2. These words/phrases/passages should perhaps be quoted directly:

The word ”metaphor” in general. There are no exact synonyms.

The terms: “literary theory”, “deconstructive reading”, “deconstructor”, “close reading”, “close-reader” and “the aspects of the relationship between . . . literature and history, literature and language, literature and gender, and literature and psychoanalysis”

”It's the point in the poem where the literal and the metaphorical begin to 'deconstruct' each other”

“Deconstructive reading is a kind of dowsing tool which is designed to pick up that counter-current that runs beneath the linguistic surface”
”so that a text ‘may betray itself’, to use the emotive, hyped-up language which is often found in deconstruction. Other terms which are often used to describe deconstruction are 'textual harassment' and 'oppositional reading'”

“Deconstruction, of course, believes that it is characteristic of all language to fight itself in this way, so that any poem, when subject to deconstructive enquiry, would reveal such symptoms to some degree”

3. In my opinion, Peter Barry’s article is rather interesting. The main argument is clearly presented and has many supporting arguments with interesting aspects on studying literature. I agree with his opinion that a reader who has literary theory in mind when studying a work of literature can come to a more explicit understanding of it than a regular “close-reader” can. Generally, I find this article quite well-structured, beginning with an explanation of what the author is going to present and discuss, followed by a very logical and persuasive argumentation with good examples. The poems he uses as examples are easy to recognize, but at the same time they are not easy to interpret, though his explanations of how to do that are highly understandable. Something I did not fancy was Barry’s small jokes he obstinately put into the text, as they were quite unnecessary and none of them were actually good. Otherwise I really enjoyed reading it.

Assignment 5

Summary of Tackling Textuality – With Theory by Peter Barry

In Peter Barry’s article, “Tackling Textuality – With Theory” The Use of English (Vol. 52, Nr. 1, Autumn 2000), he claims that the traditional way of interpreting or “close reading” a literary work is not sufficiently to come to a full understanding of the text. In the article he argues in favor of literary theory, which, in his opinion, is a tool we have to apply when studying a literary work. He begins by enumerating the traditional steps in the interpretation of a text without the influences of theory. Barry mentions the study of the structure; both in the large and the small scale, the difference between meaning and significance and between metaphorical and literal reading, and also how the genre of the literary work influences the interpretation, and the importance of apprehending possible linguistic changes. After acknowledging the fact that these rules are very important, Barry writes that they are still not enough, and then continues on explaining how literary theory can help to explain four views on the connection between literature and the outside world, which is something that the traditional approach cannot do, as it only interprets the text itself. These views include history, language, gender and psychoanalysis. He goes on explaining how each one of them is put into practice by using a famous poem by William Shakespeare. Barry explains the relationship between literature and language further, as he claims that it involves an extremely useful tool when interpreting a text, which is destructive reading. This term basically means that one examines if the text in any way contradicts itself, or if something in it distrubs the balance of the text. To demonstrate how this is done, Barry uses another example of a poem by Adrienne Rich, and examines it from the view of destructive reading. Firstly he evaluates the contradictions, then the linguistic quirks and aporia, which are parts where the language acts differentely. Changes in character and opinion are also important to consider in the means of destructive reading, as well as absence and default. As a conclusion Barry belies his encouragement of exploring a text by applying literary theory, by admitting it can be intricate trying to sort out all the problems it creates. However, then he emphasizes the knowledge one will possess when having succeeded to solve the problems, and that it also can turn out to be rather entertaining.

Keywords: close reading, traditional approach, literary theory, destructive reading, language.

Wordcount: 397

Assignment 4

Grades in Primary School will not have Positive Effects

The introduction of grades in primary school in 2007 was part of an educational reform carried out by the relatively new government; the Centre-Right Alliance. This reform was rather natural when considering the grade systems in other European countries, which have, for a long time, graded pupils in primary school. The reform does not only say that pupils will be graded in the 6th grade, but will, if the school chooses to, also evaluated them of their academic progress and behavior from 1st grade. Can we not let children be children as long as possible? This educational reform will only help to introduce an even higher stress-level into our children’s lives, and will not have the positive effects the government has hoped for.

First of all, let us consider the written reports parents will receive withholding their children’s academic progress and behavior in the 1st grade. The pupil will, if he or she does not behave in a proper way, or perhaps have trouble reading or writing, receive criticism for this from a very early age. This will, in most cases, have a negative impact on the child’s further studies, as commendation is necessary in a child’s progress for building up a positive self-image. We are all aware of this; if children do not receive positive response on what they achieve, they are not likely to perform any better in the future, as they have lost all their self-esteem.

Another argument is that grading in primary school will only create higher demands on children, whereas the stress-level already is too high among them. Children are already comparing who has the strongest father or the biggest car with each other, due to the fact that their parents are comparing themselves to others. The introduction of grades and written reports of academic progress will carry the same effect, and thereby increase the competition between the pupils as a result of the comparison of the grades, and an obvious line will be drawn between the smart ones and the stupid ones.

Some people might claim that the earlier grading in school is good to make pupils realize that they are on the wrong track, and also for making ignorant parents realize that their child has problems with learning or behaving. They claim that the teacher reports should be seen as feedback. But consider how unfair this would be to a child with a poor ability to concentrate during the early years in school. If the children that possess some kind of problem with learning to read or write or behave well in class will receive negative feedback, they will not be able to get rid of the problem. Children need encouragement to improve their learning, not criticism.

There are obviously some benefits from introducing grades in primary school and written reports from the 1st grade, but only if the child receives the feedback in the right way. There will be pupils who will be psyched up by the higher demands and perform even better, but there will also be children who cannot stand the pressure and therefore only feel bad about falling short on the expectations laid upon them. Grades in primary school are thus not a foolproof reform, and will not have positive effects in Swedish schools.

Assignment 3

The ”Flexible Flyer Snowball Maker” deserves to be Christmas Gift of the Year 2010!

“Be the envy of the neighborhood kids next time it snows with this snowball maker by Flexible Flyer. Designed to make a perfectly round snowball every time, this set has molded handles so it can be used easily by age 4 all the way to adult. This would make a great stocking stuffer, too”.

Most people know the feeling of getting a snowball right in the face by some youngster who could not resist the temptation of humiliating a person in front of a crowd. We, who have been exposed to this, know exactly how it feels to wipe the snow off our face in embarrasment, and keep on walking. But how would we feel, if we only had something to counter these young boys or girls with, something that made us to want to fight back and most definitely win the battle? The answer is the “Flexible Flyer Snowball Maker”.

There are many convincing reasons for purchasing this product and give it as a Christmas gift, and the strongest of them is definitely that, the person who receives it will become the coolest and most respected person in the neighbourhood, irrespective of his or her age. If one learns to handle this tool in the right and the cleverest way, no one is likely to ever win over you in a snowball-fight. When you gain this proficiency, the “Flexible Flyer” will produce the most perfectly round and firm snowballs rapidly, which will make it easy for you to throw a great number of snowballs during a short time. The person will undoubtedly become the ruler of the roost.

The “Flexible Flyer” is, in spite of its great qualities, a very cheap product. It is available in stores and on the Internet for an extremely agreeable sum of money, which is 5,50 dollars. This enables individuals or families with lower incomes to consume it, which is great while it is easy to use and can enjoy everyone in the family; children as much as adults.

Another reason to buy this product is the fact that everyone who likes snowball-fights is going to want to challenge the receiver of the gift in order to see whether the tool is actually as good as it is rumoured. Consequently, the person will have the opportunity to prove his or her superiority, and at the same time make new friends by letting them try the “Flexible Flyer”.

Something that might trouble the owner of the snowball maker would be if someone in the neighbourhood also bought the product, which would threaten the first owner’s ruling position. In this case, there is no need to be worried, as it will definitely increase the excitement to know which one of them is considered the strongest snowball-fighter. While the former challengers probably have grown tired of being defeated by you, and the snowball-fights have therefore diminished in number, this is a great opportunity to determine the person’s position. There will definitely be more snowball-fights, and the winner will become even more glorious.

The “Flexible Flyer Snowball Maker” should not be seen as a toy, but as a tool that can help the receiver gain the courage to fight back when he or she is being humiliated by irritating youngsters, or only in order to prove his or her strengths in snowball-fights in the neighbourhood. It is cheap and easy to use, and irrespective of the receiver’s age, the product will give him or her great amusement during many future winters.

Assignment 2

Stress in Society Causes an Increased Energy Drink Consumption among Teenagers

During the last few years, a rapid increase of energy drink consumption has been noted. This increase appears most commonly, and perhaps most surprisingly, among teenagers. Naturally the popularity is not only found among younger people, though it has definitely caused a greater concern among parents than the energy drink consumption among adults have. What causes are behind this sudden consumption increase, and is it really surprising that it is most popular among teenagers?

A great many teenagers say they use energy drinks as they make them feel more mentally alert, which is a rather strong proof of the fact that the modern society has a stress level that is unacceptable. When the demands and the stress in a teenager’s weekday have reached such high levels that he or she needs the energy boost from a high-caffeine beverage to stay awake during a lecture or manage the pressure when for instance writing an essay exam, the blame certainly cannot be directed to them. It is society that bears the blame, because along with the increase of stress and demands of performance in society, goes the increase in popularity of energy drinks. There is nothing surprising about that.

Another reason for the teen usage of an energy drink is the obvious fact that being forbidden to do something only makes it more attractive. Therefore it is very important for concerned parents to tell their children about the risks of using drinks with high contents of caffeine. Research has found that an intake of over 100 mg of caffeine per day can cause anxiety, dizziness, headaches and also the jitters. The sleep cycle is also at risk of being disturbed, and most of all, consuming much caffeine results in addiction.

Red Bull and Monster are examples of top-selling companies producing energy drinks, and these companies know their young costomers extremely well. Their advertising is built on promises of weight loss and increased endurance, obviously in connection to exercising and sports. Naturally, this seems very attractive for teenagers, and thereby they purchase more of the products. Unfortunately, energy drinks contain high levels of both caffeine and sugar, and could not possibly increase a person’s endurance or in any case be useful when exercising.

In September last year, two Swedish store chains, namely Pressbyrån and Seven Eleven, introduced an age-limit of 15 years old for the consumption of energy drinks. This decision may have been a good idea, if we consider that research has proved the dangerous consequences of consuming these boosting liquids, though we also have to keep in mind that it is society, hence adults, who stand behind this unhealthy habit.

Assignment 1

Academic Style

1. In the same way that recipes or DJs use a particular style and form of language, academic writing usually follow a particular style. Here are some guidelines to keep in mind:

* Be tentative: there are few things in the world that are cleary either right or wrong, all or nothing. Beliefs may be challenged and changed. Research is never definitely right in all cases, and therefore academics are cautious when they present their findings. Use phrases like:
• suggests that
• there is a tendency for
• it would seem that
• probable
• the majority of

* Be precise and specific: it is important not to assume that other people know what you are writing about. When you really know your subject you have to be able to explain the main terms and ideas to someone that is not familiar with the area you are studying.

* Use formal language: Academic writing is quite different from chatting with friends. You are expected to use a more formal type of language. You have to:
• avoid slang eg. cool, and language that is too casual like the paper was pretty awful. Say instead that it was poorly researched or unsubstantiated.
• use full forms rather than abbreviations eg does not, should have, instead of doesn’t,
should’ve, it’s.
• consider the making of noun structures (nominalisation) rather than wordy verb
structures
eg: “The rapid increase in crime was causing concern among the police” is more formal
than ”Crime was increasing rapidly and the police were becoming concerned.”

* Use impersonal language: in some subject areas you are expected to avoid the pronoun "I". But at the same time you have to make own statements. This is quite easy, as every statement in your academic writing that is not attributed to someone else, is assumed to be yours. Hence, if you do not quote or refer to someone else, people will know it is your own opinion.

* Use powerful reporting words: to be even more clear and persuasive when you are including other peoples research you could use a more precise reporting word. Eg Malin (2007) concedes that instead of Malin says that. Concedes carries the extra meaning of that Malin is a serious source. Other powerful reporting words: describe, contend, examine, state, disagree, observe, assert, support, claim, dispute, suggest, purport, persuade, dismiss, refute, propose etc.

2. Formal text:
The inequity in the distribution
of wealth in Australia is yet another
indicator of Australia's lack of egalitarianism.

Informal text:
Because only a few people have most
of the money and power in Australia,
I conclude that it is not an equal society.

In the formal text we find that the vocabulary is more complex, eg words like inequity and egalitarianism, instead of not an equal society, wealth instead of money and power.
The pronoun I is used in the informal text.

3. Formal text:
A student was exchanging words with
her tutor, Mrs. Johnson, when suddenly
a great many robins appeared in front
of them. Apparantely someone had invited
them in by opening a window during
a lecture in science.

Informal text:
A kid was chatting with her teacher Mary
when a lot of birds came flying into the room.
We found out that someone had opened a
window in science class and they just flew in.